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FRENCH BACKED

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1 French Backed

FRENCH BACKED
Worsted dress goods made with a weft satin back.

Dictionary of the English textile terms > French Backed
2 French-backed

adj.

apoyado por los franceses.

Nuevo Diccionario Inglés-Español > French-backed
3 French Backed Twill

FRENCH BACKED TWILL
A twill fabric in which the weft is woven in satin order on the back.

Dictionary of the English textile terms > French Backed Twill
4 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
5 World War II

(1939-1945)

   In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.

   In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.

   To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.

   The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.

   Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.

   Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.

   Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.

   Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.

   The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.

   The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.

   Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.

   In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.

   Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

Historical dictionary of Portugal > World War II
6 Д-82

ДЕЛО ДОХОДИТ/ДОШЛО ДО VP subj.)
1. \Д-82 чего things arrive at (a specific end): дело дошло до X-a - it came (down) to X
it (this, things) ended (up) in X
если дело дойдет до этого - if things come (if it comes) to that

ii дело дошло до того, что... - it (things) reached ( got to) the point where... Штаб-ротмистр на широкой и степенной кобыле шагом ехал навстречу Денисову. Штаб-ротмистр, с своими длинными усами, был серьезен, как и всегда, только глаза его блестели больше обыкновенного. «Да что? - сказал он Денисову. - Не дойдет дело до драки. Вот увидишь, назад уйдбм» (Толстой 4). The staff captain on his steady, broad-backed mare rode at a walk to meet him (Denisov). His face with its long moustache was serious as always, but his eyes were brighter than usual. "Well," he said to Denisov, "it won't come to a fight. YouH see, we'll move back again" (4a).

Дядя Сандро... понимал, как легко будет Щащико, если дело дойдет до этого, вскинуть винтовку и убить его (Искандер 3). Uncle Sandro...realized how easy it would be for Shashiko, if things came to that, to raise his rifle and kill him (3a).

Дело дошло до того, что сам Крыс... перестал спокойно спать по ночам... (Зиновьев 1). Things reached the point where Rat himself...stopped sleeping peacefully at nights... (1a).

2. - кого-чего s.o. 's or sth. 's turn arrives: дело дошло до X-a - X's turn came
it was X's turn.
Князь Андрей простым глазом увидал внизу направо поднимавшуюся навстречу апшеронцам густую колонну французов, не дальше пятисот шагов от того места, где стоял Кутузов. «Вот она, наступила решительная минута! Дошло до меня дело», - подумал князь Андрей и, ударив лошадь, подъехал к Кутузову (Толстой 4). With the naked eye Prince Andrew saw below them to the right, not more than five hundred paces from where Kutuzov was standing, a dense French column coming up to meet the Apsherons. "Here it is! The decisive moment has arrived. My turn has come," thought Prince Andrew, and striking his horse he rode up to Kutuzov (4b).

Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > Д-82
7 дело доходит до

• ДЕЛО ДОХОДИТ/ДОШЛО ДО

[VPsubj]

=====

1. дело доходит до чего things arrive at (a specific end): дело дошло до X-a - it came (down) to X; it (this, things) ended (up) in X; || если дело дойдёт до этого ≈ if things come (if it comes) to that; || дело дошло до того, что... ≈ it < things> reached ( got to) the point where...

     ♦ Штаб-ротмистр на широкой и степенной кобыле шагом ехал навстречу Денисову. Штаб-ротмистр, с своими длинными усами, был серьёзен, как и всегда, только глаза его блестели больше обыкновенного. "Да что? - сказал он Денисову. - Не дойдёт дело до драки. Вот увидишь, назад уйдём" (Толстой 4). The staff captain on his steady, broad-backed mare rode at a walk to meet him [Denisov]. His face with its long moustache was serious as always, but his eyes were brighter than usual. "Well," he said to Denisov, "it won't come to a fight. You'll see, we'll move back again" (4a).

     ♦ Дядя Сандро... понимал, как легко будет Щащико, если дело дойдёт до этого, вскинуть винтовку и убить его (Искандер 3). Uncle Sandro...realized how easy it would be for Shashiko, if things came to that, to raise his rifle and kill him (3a).

     ♦ Дело дошло до того, что сам Крыс... перестал спокойно спать по ночам... (Зиновьев 1). Things reached the point where Rat himself...stopped sleeping peacefully at nights... (1a).

2. дело доходит до кого-чего s.o.'s or sth.'s turn arrives: дело дошло до X-a - X's turn came; it was X's turn.

     ♦ Князь Андрей простым глазом увидал внизу направо поднимавшуюся навстречу апшеронцам густую колонну французов, не дальше пятисот шагов от того места, где стоял Кутузов. "Вот она, наступила решительная минута! Дошло до меня дело", - подумал князь Андрей и, ударив лошадь, подъехал к Кутузову (Толстой 4). With the naked eye Prince Andrew saw below them to the right, not more than five hundred paces from where Kutuzov was standing, a dense French column coming up to meet the Apsherons. "Here it is! The decisive moment has arrived. My turn has come," thought Prince Andrew, and striking his horse he rode up to Kutuzov (4b).

Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > дело доходит до
8 дело дошло до

• ДЕЛО ДОХОДИТ/ДОШЛО ДО

[VPsubj]

=====

1. дело дошло до чего things arrive at (a specific end): дело дошло до X-a - it came (down) to X; it (this, things) ended (up) in X; || если дело дойдёт до этого ≈ if things come (if it comes) to that; || дело дошло до того, что... ≈ it < things> reached ( got to) the point where...

     ♦ Штаб-ротмистр на широкой и степенной кобыле шагом ехал навстречу Денисову. Штаб-ротмистр, с своими длинными усами, был серьёзен, как и всегда, только глаза его блестели больше обыкновенного. "Да что? - сказал он Денисову. - Не дойдёт дело до драки. Вот увидишь, назад уйдём" (Толстой 4). The staff captain on his steady, broad-backed mare rode at a walk to meet him [Denisov]. His face with its long moustache was serious as always, but his eyes were brighter than usual. "Well," he said to Denisov, "it won't come to a fight. You'll see, we'll move back again" (4a).

     ♦ Дядя Сандро... понимал, как легко будет Щащико, если дело дойдёт до этого, вскинуть винтовку и убить его (Искандер 3). Uncle Sandro...realized how easy it would be for Shashiko, if things came to that, to raise his rifle and kill him (3a).

     ♦ Дело дошло до того, что сам Крыс... перестал спокойно спать по ночам... (Зиновьев 1). Things reached the point where Rat himself...stopped sleeping peacefully at nights... (1a).

2. дело дошло до кого-чего s.o.'s or sth.'s turn arrives: дело дошло до X-a - X's turn came; it was X's turn.

     ♦ Князь Андрей простым глазом увидал внизу направо поднимавшуюся навстречу апшеронцам густую колонну французов, не дальше пятисот шагов от того места, где стоял Кутузов. "Вот она, наступила решительная минута! Дошло до меня дело", - подумал князь Андрей и, ударив лошадь, подъехал к Кутузову (Толстой 4). With the naked eye Prince Andrew saw below them to the right, not more than five hundred paces from where Kutuzov was standing, a dense French column coming up to meet the Apsherons. "Here it is! The decisive moment has arrived. My turn has come," thought Prince Andrew, and striking his horse he rode up to Kutuzov (4b).

Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > дело дошло до
9 ♦ broken

♦ broken /ˈbrəʊkən/
A p. p.

di to break

B a.

1 rotto; spezzato; infranto; in pezzi: a broken chair, una sedia rotta; a broken leg, una gamba rotta; broken bones, ossa spezzate; DIALOGO → - Accident and Emergency- Is his ankle broken?, la caviglia è rotta?; si è rotto la caviglia?; broken glass, vetri infranti; frammenti di vetro

2 non funzionante; rotto; guasto: a broken clock, un orologio rotto; a broken radio, una radio guasta

3 infranto; violato; non mantenuto: broken pact, patto infranto; broken promise, promessa non mantenuta

4 ( di relazione) rotto; finito; fallito: a broken engagement, un fidanzamento rotto; a broken marriage, un matrimonio finito

5 interrotto; discontinuo; a tratti: broken line, linea tratteggiata; (autom.) riga discontinua; broken clouds, nuvolosità (sing.) irregolare; a broken journey, un viaggio interrotto più volte; broken sleep, sonno disturbato (o agitato)

6 accidentato; sconnesso; irregolare: broken ground, terreno accidentato

7 abbattuto; distrutto; spezzato: a broken man, un uomo distrutto; broken spirit, spirito spezzato; a broken heart, un cuore spezzato (o infranto); broken-hearted, dal cuore spezzato

8 stentato; approssimativo: He answered in broken French, rispose in un francese stentato

9 ( di cavallo) domato

● broken-backed, con la schiena rotta □ (mus.) broken chord, accordo arpeggiato □ broken-down, (di edificio, ecc.) malridotto, malandato, fatiscente; (di macchina, ecc.) guasto, inservibile; ( di cavallo) sfiancato □ (fam.) broken English, inglese stentato, maccheronico □ broken health, salute malferma □ broken home, famiglia con genitori separati o divorziati: He comes from a broken home, è figlio di genitori divorziati □ (mat.) broken numbers, numeri fratti; frazioni □ broken reed, persona debole e inaffidabile □ (ind. costr.) broken stone, pietrisco □ (naut.) broken water, mare increspato; maretta □ (vet.) broken wind, bolsaggine □ ( di cavallo) broken-winded, bolso
brokenly
avv.

1 a scatti; in modo irregolare; spasmodicamente; con interruzioni

2 con voce rotta
brokeness
n. [u]

1 irregolarità; configurazione accidentata

2 spasmodicità; discontinuità.

English-Italian dictionary > ♦ broken
10 paper

1) бумага

2) газета; журнал

3) лист бумаги

4) документ

5) бумажные деньги

6) пакет

7) статья; научный доклад

8) обои

9) папье-маше

10) завёртывать в бумагу

11) подклеивать форзац

- paper for copying

- paper for covers

- paper for making-ready

- abrasive paper

- absorbent paper

- absorptive paper

- account book paper

- acid-free paper

- acid-proof paper

- active paper

- adhesive paper

- advertising paper

- air-dried paper

- airmail paper

- air-proof paper

- alabaster paper

- Albert note paper

- album paper

- albumenized paper

- Alexandria paper

- alkali-proof paper

- alkali-resistant paper

- all-rag paper

- all-rag litho paper

- animal-sized paper

- animal tub-sized paper

- antiacid manila paper

- antique paper

- antirust paper

- antitarnish paper

- armored paper

- art paper

- ashless filter paper

- atlas paper

- autographic printing paper

- azure laid paper

- backing paper

- backlining paper

- bag paper

- bakelite paper

- bank paper

- banknote paper

- barrier coated paper

- baryta paper

- base paper

- bastard paper

- batic paper

- bible paper

- bibulous paper

- bill paper

- black pattern paper

- black photo paper

- black wrapping paper

- blade coated paper

- blank paper

- blank-book paper

- bleached paper

- blotting paper

- blue paper

- blueprint paper

- board paper

- body paper

- bond paper

- book-end paper

- book-lining paper

- book paper

- boxed paper

- Braille paper

- Bristol paper

- broken paper

- bromide paper

- brown paper

- brownprint paper

- brush-coated paper

- bull paper

- bulked paper

- bulking paper

- burlap-lined paper

- burnt paper

- cable paper

- calendered paper

- calendered gravure paper

- calendered letterpress paper

- calf paper

- cameo-coated paper

- candy paper

- cap paper

- capsule-carrying paper

- carbon paper

- carbonless paper

- carbon printing paper

- carborundum paper

- cartridge paper

- caseine-coated paper

- case-lining paper

- casse paper

- cassie paper

- cast-coated paper

- chalk overlay paper

- chart paper

- chemical transfer paper

- chemical wood-pulp paper

- check paper

- china paper

- chlorobromide paper

- chroma paper

- chromo paper

- cigarette paper

- clay-coated paper

- closely made paper with moderate finish

- cloth-backed paper

- cloth-centered paper

- cloth-lined paper

- coarse paper

- coarse-grain abrasive paper

- coated paper

- coated free-sheet paper

- coated groundwood paper

- coated litho paper

- coated one-side paper

- coated two-side paper

- cob paper

- collotype paper

- colored printing paper

- condenser paper

- conditioned paper

- conducting paper

- contact paper

- continuous paper

- contrast paper

- converting paper

- coordinate paper

- copy paper

- cork paper

- corn raw paper

- correspondence paper

- corrugated paper

- cotton rag paper

- cover paper

- crayon paper

- cream-laid paper

- cream-wove paper

- crкpe paper

- cross-section paper

- currency paper

- cut sized paper

- cyclostyle raw paper

- Day-glo fluorescent paper

- decalcomania paper

- deckle edged paper

- decorative paper

- design paper

- developing paper

- diazo paper

- diazoprint paper

- diazotype tracing paper

- dielectric paper

- dielectric coated paper

- difficult paper

- diffusion-transfer negative paper

- double-coated paper

- double-sided self-adhesive paper

- double-tone paper

- drafting paper

- drawing paper

- drying paper

- dry mat paper

- dull art paper

- dull coated paper

- dull finished art paper

- duplex paper

- duplicating note paper

- duplicator paper

- dusty paper

- egg-shell paper

- electrical paper

- electrically conductive paper

- electrophotographic paper

- electrostatic recording paper

- elephant paper

- embossed paper

- emery paper

- enamel paper

- end-leaf paper

- endless paper

- English-finish paper

- engraver's paper

- envelope paper

- esparto paper

- extra-supercalendered paper

- Fabriano paper

- facing paper

- fanfold paper

- fashion paper

- featherweight paper

- filigree paper

- filter paper

- fine paper

- finished paper

- fireproof paper

- flat paper

- flatting paper

- flint paper

- flong paper

- floorpost paper

- fluffy paper

- fly-leat paper

- foil paper

- foil raw paper

- food packaging paper

- foolscape paper

- fraud-proof paper

- French-Japan paper

- frisket paper

- garnet paper

- gelatined paper

- geography paper

- glass paper

- glassine paper

- glazed paper

- glazed imitation paper

- glossy paper

- gold paper

- goldenred paper

- granulated paper

- grained paper

- graph paper

- gravure paper

- grease-proof paper

- green paper

- gritty paper

- groundwood paper

- 50 gsm paper

- gummed paper

- gummed label paper

- halftone paper

- halftone coated paper

- handle paper

- hand-made paper

- hard paper

- hard-sized paper

- hard-surfaced paper

- heat-copying paper

- heat seal paper

- heat-sensitive paper

- heavy paper

- heliographic paper

- helioprinting sensitized paper

- high-bulking paper

- high grade paper

- highly-glazed paper

- Holland hand-made paper

- hosiery paper

- hotmelt coated paper

- hot weather type pigment paper

- hydrophilic paper

- illustrated postcard paper

- illustration printing paper

- image bearing paper

- imbibition paper

- imitation art paper

- imitation deckle-edge paper

- imitation hand-made paper

- impregnated paper

- impression paper

- Indian paper

- Indian Oxford paper

- Indian-proof paper

- indicator paper

- insulation paper

- intaglio paper

- interleaving paper

- ion-exchange paper

- ivory paper

- Japan paper

- Japanese paper

- Java paper

- job paper

- job printing paper

- jute paper

- kraft paper

- label paper

- lace paper

- lacquer-coated paper

- laid paper

- laminated paper

- large paper

- lay-out paper

- leaf paper

- ledger paper

- legal paper

- letter paper

- light-weight paper

- linear paper

- linen paper

- lining paper

- linty paper

- lithographic paper

- litmus paper

- loaded paper

- loan paper

- loose paper

- low-grade paper

- luminous paper

- machine-coated paper

- machine-finished paper

- machine-glazed paper

- machine-made paper

- magazine paper

- manifold paper

- manila paper

- map paper

- marble paper

- marbling paper

- masking paper

- mat art paper

- match label paper

- matrix paper

- mat surface paper

- mechanical transfer paper

- mechanical wood-pulp paper

- metal paper

- metal base paper

- metallic paper

- metal-mounted paper

- mica paper

- mill-conditioned paper

- mill-finished litho paper

- mill-tinted paper

- mimeograph paper

- modified paper

- monotype paper

- mottled paper

- multigraph paper

- multiply paper

- music paper

- music printing paper

- napkin paper

- natural colored paper

- NCR paper

- no carbon required paper

- needle paper

- negative paper

- neutral pH paper

- news paper

- noiseless paper

- nonabsorbent paper

- nonbibulous paper

- noncurling paper

- normal-type pigment paper

- note paper

- not surface paper

- odd-sized paper

- off-caliper paper

- office paper

- official paper

- offset paper

- oil paper

- oil cloth paper

- oiled paper

- oil-impregnated paper

- oil tracing paper

- old paper

- one-side art paper

- one-side glazed paper

- one-time carbon paper

- onion skin paper

- ordinary paper

- ornamental paper

- packing paper

- packaging paper

- page paper

- papyroline paper

- paraffined paper

- parchment paper

- parchmentizing paper

- parliamentary paper

- paste-board work paper

- pasted paper

- peel-off backing paper

- perforated paper

- photograph paper

- photographic raw paper

- photogravure pigment paper

- photolitho paper

- phototypesetting paper

- pigment paper

- pigmented gelatin-coated paper

- pigmented offset paper

- pigment printing raw paper

- plain paper

- plastic paper

- plastic-coated paper

- plotting paper

- point paper

- porous paper

- poster paper

- preimpregnated paper

- preservative paper

- pressure-sensitive paper

- pressure-sensitive carbon paper

- printed paper

- printing paper

- printing-out paper

- process-coated paper

- processed paper

- production-coated paper

- program paper

- proof paper

- publication paper

- pulp-colored paper

- punched paper

- pure paper

- pure-rag paper

- pyroxylin-coated paper

- qualitative filter paper

- quantitative filter paper

- rag paper

- raw paper

- reagent paper

- record paper

- recycled paper

- red matrix paper

- reeled paper

- reflex paper

- reinforced paper

- release paper

- resin-sized paper

- resistant paper

- reversal paper

- rice paper

- roll paper

- rotogravure paper

- rough paper

- royal paper

- ruled paper

- safety paper

- safety check paper

- satin paper

- scrap paper

- section paper

- security paper

- self-adhesive paper

- self-copy paper

- sensitive paper

- sensitized paper

- set-off preventive paper

- sheet paper

- silicone-coated paper

- silicone-treated paper

- silk paper

- silver paper

- sized paper

- slack sized paper

- small cap paper

- small hands paper

- smooth paper

- soft paper

- soft-sized paper

- special paper

- specially sized paper

- sprocketed paper

- squared paper

- stained paper

- stale paper

- stamp paper

- stamped paper

- starch paper

- stencil paper

- stout paper

- strong paper

- sunday paper

- super paper

- supercalendered paper

- superroyal paper

- surface-sized paper

- synthetic paper

- synthetic fiber paper

- tea paper

- tea label paper

- technical paper

- Teledeltos paper

- texture paper

- thermoplastic adhesive paper

- thermosensitive paper

- thick printing paper

- thin printing paper

- ticket paper

- tinted paper

- tissue paper

- title paper

- tobacco paper

- top packing paper

- top quality paper

- torchon paper

- tough paper

- tracing paper

- transfer paper

- translucent paper

- transparent paper

- tub-sized paper

- turmeric paper

- twin-wire paper

- two-side coated paper

- tympan paper

- uncalendered paper

- uncoated paper

- uncoated free-sheet paper

- unglazed paper

- unglued paper

- unsized paper

- Van Dyke paper

- variable contrast paper

- vat paper

- vegetable parchment paper

- vellum paper

- wall paper

- waste paper

- waterproof paper

- wavy edge paper

- waxed paper

- weak paper

- web paper

- white paper

- whity brown paper

- wire-laid paper

- woodfree paper

- wood-pulp paper

- wove paper

- wrapping paper

- writing paper

- zinc oxide paper

Англо-русский словарь по полиграфии и издательскому делу > paper
11 very like a whale

уст.; разг.; ирон.

так я и поверил!, ну конечно!, как бы не так! [переосмысленное шекспировское выражение; см. цитату]

Hamlet: "Do you see yonder cloud that's almost in shape of a camel?" Polonius: "By the mass, and 'tis like a camel, indeed." Hamlet: "Methinks it is like a weasel." Polonius: "It is backed like a weasel." Hamlet: "Or like a whale?" Polonius: "Very like a whale. " (W. Shakespeare, ‘Hamlet’, act II, sc. 2) — Гамлет: "Видите ли вы то облако в форме верблюда?" Полоний: "Ей-Богу, вижу, и, действительно, ни дать ни взять - верблюд." Гамлет: "По-моему, оно смахивает на хорька." Полоний: "Правильно: спинка хорьковая." Гамлет: "Или как у кита." Полоний: "Совершенно как у кита. " (перевод Б. Пастернака)

‘I was endeavouring to make peace,’ returned Mr. French, with unblushing effrontery. ‘Mighty like a whale,’ observed the commander, in a side whisper. (W. H. Maxwell, ‘Hector O'Hal’, DEP) — - Но я пытался помириться, - нагло ответил мистер Френч. - Свежо предание! - шепотом бросил в сторону командир.

Large English-Russian phrasebook > very like a whale
12 paper

1. газета; журнал

bogus paper — газета — призрак

daily paper — ежедневная газета

popular paper — массовая газета

quality paper — солидная газета

Sunday paper — воскресная газета

2. лист бумаги

no paper — нет бумаги

paper out — нет бумаги

paper edge — край бумаги

out of paper — нет бумаги

paper grade — сорт бумаги

3. документ

sham paper — подложный, фальшивый документ

confirming paper work — оформление документов

paper inventory — инвентаризация по документам

falsified paper — подложный, фальшивый документ

nomination paper — документ о выдвижении кандидата

4. бумажные деньги

paper disk — бумажный диск

paper dust — бумажная пыль

paper pad — бумажный лоток

paper drum — бумажный рулон

paper feeler — бумажный щуп

5. пакет

paper packet — бумажный пакет

paper bag — пакет; бумажный мешок

a paper of needles — пакетик иголок

paper of sandwiches — пакет с бутербродами

6. статья; научный доклад

present paper — настоящая статья

selected paper — избранная статья

final paper — окончательный вариант статьи

invited paper — заказная статья; заказной доклад

the drawbacks of your paper — недостатки вашей статьи

7. обои

paper hangers — обои

paper hangings — обои

paper border — кайма обоев

paper prints — бумажные обои

paper hanger — оклейщик обоев

8. папье-маше

завёртывать в бумагу

cases, stands, tea-boards all of paper finely varnished and painted — коробки, подставки, чайные подносы из папье-маше, искусно разрисованные и покрытые лаком

9. подклеивать форзац

paper for copying — копировальная бумага

paper for covers — обложечная бумага

paper for making-ready — приправочная бумага

abrasive paper — наждачная бумага

absorbent paper — впитывающая бумага

account book paper — бумага для конторских книг

acid-free paper — бескислотная бумага; антикоррозийная бумага

acid-proof paper — кислотоупорная бумага; антикоррозийная бумага

active paper — бумага с большой чувствительностью к изменению атмосферных условий

adhesive paper — липкая бумага

advertising paper — газета с рекламой и объявлениями

air-dried paper — бумага воздушной сушки

airmail paper — бумага для авиапочты

air-proof paper — воздухонепроницаемая бумага

alabaster paper — алебастровая бумага; бумага, покрытая слоем свинцового сахара

Albert note paper — почтовая бумага форматом 9,8?15,2 см

album paper — альбомная бумага

albumenized paper — альбуминизированная бумага; бумага, покрытая слоем альбумина

Alexandria paper — александрийская бумага

alkali-proof paper — щёлочестойкая бумага

all-rag paper — чистотряпичная бумага

all-rag litho paper — чистотряпичная литографская бумага

animal-sized paper — бумага с проклейкой животным клеем

animal tub-sized paper — бумага с поверхностной проклейкой животным клеем

antiacid manila paper — кислотостойкая бумага из манильского волокна

antique paper — бумага с грубой поверхностью, имитирующая старинную бумагу ручной выделки; бумага с матовой отделкой

leaf paper — форзац

10. антикоррозийная бумага

paper pack — стопа бумаги

mat paper — матовая бумага

paper break — обрыв бумаги

paper size — размер бумаги

paper skip — прогон бумаги

11. бумага с нетускнеющей поверхностью

armored paper — армированная бумага

art paper — мелованная бумага с высоким глянцем

ashless filter paper — беззольная фильтровальная бумага

atlas paper — бумага для географических атласов

autographic printing paper — автографская печатная бумага

paper slew — прогон бумаги

soft paper — мягкая бумага

wax paper — вощеная бумага

white paper — белая бумага

dull paper — матовая бумага

12. бумага-основа

13. оклеечная бумага

paper throw — прогон бумаги

rice paper — рисовая бумага

wall paper — обойная бумага

web paper — рулонная бумага

blank paper — чистая бумага

14. светозащитная бумага

bulked paper — рыхлая бумага

drum of paper — рулон бумаги

end paper — форзацная бумага

note paper — почтовая бумага

paper back — подложка бумаги

15. бумага для переноса красящего слоя

backlining paper — бумага для оклеивания корешков блоков

bag paper — пакетная бумага

bakelite paper — бакелитовая бумага, бумага с наполнителем из фенольной смолы

bank paper — банковская бумага

banknote paper — бумага для изготовления денежных знаков

barrier coated paper — бумага с защитным покрытием

baryta paper — баритированная бумага, баритовая бумага

base paper — бумага-основа

bastard paper — грубая бумага; серая бумага; грубая обёрточная бумага

batic paper — батиковая бумага

bible paper — словарная бумага, библьдрук

bibulous paper — промокательная бумага; впитывающая бумага

bill paper — бумага для изготовления денежных знаков и других документов строгой отчётности

black pattern paper — трафаретная бумага

black photo paper — чёрная бумага

black wrapping paper — чёрная светонепроницаемая упаковочная бумага

blade coated paper — бумага ракельного мелования

blank paper — чистый лист бумаги

blank-book paper — бумага для конторских книжек

bleached paper — белёная бумага

blotting paper — промокательная бумага; впитывающая бумага

blue paper — отчёт о деятельности палаты общин за каждый прошедший день

blueprint paper — светокопировальная бумага, бумага для изготовления синих копий, синька

board paper — часть форзаца, приклеиваемая к переплётной крышке

body paper — подложка, субстрат; бумага-основа

bond paper — бумага для печатания документов различного назначения

nonbibulous paper — невпитывающая бумага

opacity of paper — непрозрачность бумаги

paper fff transparency — бумага — пленка

paper roller — ролик для протяжки бумаги

paper signature panel — поле для подписи

16. бумага для склеивания корешков блоков

book paper

lithographic paper — литографская бумага

mouthpiece paper — бумага для мундштуков

preservative paper — бумага для упаковки

tissue paper — китайская шёлковая бумага

wet-strength paper — влагопрочная бумага

17. печатная бумага, бумага для печатания книг

vegetable parchment paper — водо- и жиронепроницаемая бумага

single-log paper — логарифмическая бумага с одинарной сеткой

quantitative filter paper — беззольная фильтровальная бумага

peel-off backing paper — отделяемая предохранительная бумага

paper impression cylinder — печатный цилиндр офсетной машины

18. типографская бумага

boxed paper — бумага, уложенная или упакованная в коробку

Braille paper — бумага для брайлевской печати

Bristol paper — бристольская бумага

broken paper — дефектная бумага

bromide paper — бромосеребряная фотобумага

brown paper — грубая обёрточная бумага

brownprint paper — светокопировальная бумага, бумага для изготовления коричневых копий

brush-coated paper — бумага щёточного мелования

bull paper — бумага цвета буйволовой кожи

bulked paper — пухлая бумага

burlap-lined paper — армированная бумага

burnt paper — пересушенная бумага

cable paper — кабельная бумага

calendered paper — каландрированная бумага, глазированная бумага, лощёная бумага, сатинированная бумага

calendered gravure paper — каландрированная бумага для глубокой печати

calendered letterpress paper — каландрированная бумага для высокой печати

calf paper — бумага, имитирующая телячью кожу

cameo-coated paper — мелованная бумага с матовой поверхностью

candy paper — бумага для завёртывания конфет

cap paper — писчая бумага большого формата

capsule-carrying paper — копировальная бумага с покрытием, содержащим химический реагент в микрокапсулах

carbon paper — копировальная бумага

carbonless paper — копировальная бумага, не содержащая пигмента, самокопирующая бумага

carbon printing paper — основа пигментной бумаги

paper fff transparency printer — принтер для бумаги и пленки

litmus red test paper — красная лакмусовая реактивная бумага

food packaging paper — бумага для упаковки пищевых продуктов

coffee filtering paper — бумага для процеживания настоя кофе

chattel paper — бумага, удостоверяющая имущественный интерес

19. чертёжная бумага низкого качества

butcher paper — кровенепроницаемая бумага; толстый пергамент

to tear off a small piece of paper — оторвать клочок бумаги

their pens raced over the paper — их перья бегали по бумаге

the paper sticks to my fingers — бумага прилипает к пальцам

paper submerging tray — кювета для погружения в него бумаги

20. обложечная бумага

caseine-coated paper — бумага с казеиновым покрытием

methyl-orange test paper — метилоранжевая реактивная бумага

contact printing paper — бумага для контактного копирования

closeness of paper surface — сомкнутость поверхности бумаги

autographical printing paper — автографская печатная бумага

English-finish paper — глазированная, сатинированная бумага

21. бумага, испорченная при изготовлении

wood-pulp paper — бумага, изготовленная из древесной массы

paper roll holder — устройство для крепления рулона бумаги

to clip sheets of paper together — скреплять листы бумаги

self-sealing paper — бумага с самосклеивающимся покрытием

program paper — бумага для печатания театральных программ

22. наружные листы пачки бумаги

cast-coated paper

bottom paper feed — подача бумаги снизу

capacitor paper — конденсаторная бумага

chalk-overlay paper — мелованная бумага

cutlery paper — антикоррозионная бумага

etching paper — бумага для гравирования

23. бумага машинного мелования

plastic paper coatings — пластмассовые покрытия для бумаг

pigmented offset paper — пигментированная офсетная бумага

paper web — лента бумаги, бумажная лента; бумажный рулон

heat-seallng paper — бумага с самосклеивающимся покрытием

electrostatic recording paper — электрографическая бумага

24. мелованная бумага с повышенным лоском

chalk overlay paper — мелованная бумага

chart paper — картографическая бумага

chemical transfer paper — копировальная бумага для химического переноса изображения

chemical wood-pulp paper — бумага из древесной целлюлозы

check paper — бумага для изготовления чековых книжек

china paper — китайская бумага

chlorobromide paper — хлоробромосеребряная фотобумага

chroma paper — высококачественная мелованная бумага, бумага высокой степени мелования

chromo paper — бумага, имитирующая хромовую кожу

cigarette paper — папиросная бумага

clay-coated paper — бумага, покрытая слоем каолина

closely made paper with moderate finish — бумага с сомкнутой поверхностью и умеренным каландрированием

cloth-backed paper — армированная бумага с внутренним слоем из ткани

cloth-lined paper — армированная бумага с наружным слоем из ткани

coarse paper — грубая бумага, шероховатая бумага, бумага с грубой поверхностью

coarse-grain abrasive paper — крупнозернистая наждачная бумага

coated paper — мелованная бумага; бумага с покрытием

coated free-sheet paper — мелованная бумага, не содержащая древесной массы

coated groundwood paper — мелованная бумага, содержащая древесную массу

coated litho paper — мелованная литографская бумага

coated one-side paper — бумага одностороннего мелования

coated two-side paper — бумага двустороннего мелования

cob paper — форзацная бумага

collotype paper — фототипная бумага

colored printing paper — цветная печатная бумага

condenser paper — конденсаторная бумага

conditioned paper — акклиматизированная бумага

conducting paper — электропроводящая бумага

contact paper — бумага для контактного копирования

continuous paper — рулонная бумага

contrast paper — контрастная фотобумага

converting paper — фотобумага для обработки с обращением

coordinate paper — бумага с координатной сеткой, миллиметровая бумага

copy paper — копировальная бумага

cork paper — бумага из коры пробкового дуба

corn raw paper — бумага-основа для корнпапира, бумага-основа для зернёной бумаги

correspondence paper — писчая бумага высокого качества

corrugated paper — гофрированная бумага

cotton rag paper — бумага из хлопчатобумажного сырья

cover paper — обложечная бумага

crayon paper — карандашная рисовальная бумага

cream-laid paper — бумага верже кремового цвета

cream-wove paper — веленевая бумага кремового цвета

crepe paper — крепированная бумага

cross-section paper — бумага с координатной сеткой, миллиметровая бумага

currency paper — бумага для изготовления денежных знаков

cut sized paper — нарезанная бумага, бумага, разрезанная на листы канцелярского формата

cyclostyle raw paper — бумага-основа для восковки

Day-glo fluorescent paper — бумага дневного свечения, люминесцентная бумага

decalcomania paper — бумага-основа для декалькомании

deckle edged paper — бумага ручного отлива

paper curl — сминание бумаги

paper flow — движение бумаги

paper save — экономия бумаги

plain paper — простая бумага

pole paper — полюсная бумага

25. узорчатая бумага

post paper — почтовая бумага

roll paper — рулонная бумага

sack paper — мешочная бумага

sheet of paper — лист бумаги

silk paper — атласная бумага

26. чертёжная бумага; рисовальная бумага

developing paper — фотографическая бумага, фотобумага

diazo paper — диазотипная бумага, диазобумага

diazotype tracing paper — диазокалька

dielectric paper — изоляционная бумага, диэлектрическая бумага

dielectric coated paper — бумага, покрытая слоем диэлектрика

difficult paper — труднозапечатываемая бумага

diffusion-transfer negative paper — негативная бумага, применяемая при диффузионном способе переноса изображения

double-coated paper — бумага двустороннего мелования

double-sided self-adhesive paper — бумага с двусторонним самоприклеивающимся слоем

double-tone paper — двухцветная бумага

drafting paper — чертёжная бумага

stout paper — крепкая бумага

to tear paper — рвать бумагу

tough paper — прочная бумага

virgin paper — чистая бумага

wafer paper — рисовая бумага

27. прокладочная бумага

cartridge paper — бумага для изготовления патронных гильз

French-Japan paper — французская имитация японской бумаги

Bible paper — библьдрук, особо тонкая непрозрачная бумага

synthetic-fiber paper — бумага из синтетического волокна

synthetic fiber paper — бумага из синтетического волокна

28. промокательная бумага

dry mat paper — матричный картон

dull art paper — матовая мелованная бумага

dull finished art paper — листовая мелованная бумага

duplex paper — бумага для двустороннего копирования

specially sized paper — бумага со специальной проклейкой

set-off preventive paper — бумага для прокладки оттисков

samurai commercial paper — коммерческая бумага "самурай"

paper roll hoist — устройство для подъема рулонов бумаги

paper drilling — просверливание отверстий в стопе бумаги

29. эстампная бумага, бумага для художественной печати

Japan paper — японская бумага

bulking paper — пухлая бумага

cigar paper — сигарная бумага

glazed paper — лощёная бумага

ivory paper — слоновая бумага

30. глазированная бумага; мелованная бумага

end-leaf paper — форзацная бумага

endless paper — рулонная бумага

paper finish — отделка бумаги

paper grammage — масса бумаги

paper supply — наличие бумаги

point paper — канвовая бумага

poster paper — афишная бумага

31. конвертная бумага

paper controller — устройство для контроля подачи бумаги

paper conditioner — устройство для акклиматизации бумаги

oil tracing paper — бумага — основа для чертежной кальки

normal-type pigment paper — нормальная пигментная бумага

electrically conductive paper — электропроводящая бумага

32. обёрточная бумага

esparto paper — бумага из волокна травы эспарто

extra-supercalendered paper — глазированная бумага высшего качества, суперкаландрированная бумага

Fabriano paper — изготовленная ручным способом итальянская бумага для роскошных изданий

facing paper — обклеечная бумага

fanfold paper — бумага, сфальцованная гармошкой

fashion paper — выделанная бумага

fly-leat sheet paper — форзацная бумага

linen paper — бумага из льняного тряпья

moldproof paper — неплесневеющая бумага

noncombustible paper — негорючая бумага

paper bleeds little — бумага всё терпит

33. филигранная бумага, филигрань; бумага с водяными знаками

sheet paper — флатовая бумага

slip of paper — листок бумаги

smooth paper — гладкая бумага

stamp paper — гербовая бумага

strong paper — крепкая бумага

34. тонкая бумага с прозрачным узором

filter paper — фильтровальная бумага

fine paper — высокосортная бумага

finished paper — облагороженная бумага

fireproof paper — огнеупорная бумага

flat paper — листовая бумага

flatting paper — непроклеенная бумага

flint paper — наждачная бумага

flong paper — матричный картон

floorpost paper — почтовая бумага

paper combustibility — горючесть бумаги

paper knife — нож для разрезания бумаги

self-copy paper — самокопирующая бумага

starch test paper — индикаторная бумага

unglazed paper — неглазированная бумага

35. бумага с клеевым желатиновым слоем

zinc oxide paper — цинкоксидная бумага

antirust paper — антикоррозийная бумага

antiseptic paper — бактерицидная бумага

whity brown paper — грубая серая бумага

wove paper — бумага с сетчатой фактурой

36. пигментная бумага

geography paper — картографическая бумага

glass paper — наждачная бумага; бумага из стекловолокна

sugar paper — сахарная бумага

weak paper — непрочная бумага

emery paper — наждачная бумага

paper motion — движение бумаги

paper shaft — валик для бумаги

37. атласная бумага

glazed imitation paper — тонкая прочная глазированная бумага, имитирующая пергамент

paper supplies — запасы бумаги

porous paper — пористая бумага

reeled paper — рулонная бумага

rolled paper — рулонная бумага

security paper — ценные бумаги

38. «золотая» бумага

bactericidal paper — бактерицидная бумага

desinfectant paper — бактерицидная бумага

discount paper — дисконтная ценная бумага

manuscript on paper — рукопись на бумаге

maturing of paper — акклиматизация бумаги

39. бумага, окрашенная бронзовой краской

goldenred paper — оранжевая бумага

granulated paper — зернистая бумага

graph paper — бумага с координатной сеткой, миллиметровая бумага

gravure paper — бумага для глубокой печати

baling paper — оберточная бумага для кип

insecticide paper — инсектицидная бумага

alkali-proof paper — щелочестойкая бумага

non-bibulous paper — невпитывающая бумага

nonabsorbent paper — невпитывающая бумага

40. невыдержанная бумага

torchon paper — торшонированная бумага

wood paper — бумага из древесной массы

offset paper — бумага для офсетной печати

oilproof paper — жиронепроницаемая бумага

paper speed — скорость перемещения бумаги

41. свежевыработанная бумага; неотлежавшаяся бумага

gritty paper — бумага с твёрдыми включениями

groundwood paper — бумага на основе древесной массы

50 gsm paper — бумага массой 50 г

gummed paper — гуммированная бумага

gummed label paper — гуммированная этикеточная бумага

halftone paper — бумага для растровой печати

halftone coated paper — мелованная бумага для растровой печати

handle paper — обёрточная бумага

hand-made paper — бумага ручного производства, бумага ручного отлива

hard paper — плотная бумага; картон

hard-sized paper — сильно проклеенная бумага

hard-surfaced paper — бумага с уплотнённым поверхностным слоем

heat-copying paper — термокопировальная бумага

heat seal paper — бумага, приклеивающаяся при нагреве

heat-sensitive paper — термочувствительная бумага

heavy paper — плотная бумага, бумага с большой объёмной массой

heliographic paper — светокопировальная бумага

helioprinting sensitized paper — светочувствительная бумага для гелиопечати

high-bulking paper — пухлая бумага

high grade paper — высококачественная бумага

highly-glazed paper — сильноглазированная бумага

Holland hand-made paper — голландская бумага

hosiery paper — тонкая обёрточная бумага

hotmelt coated paper — бумага с покрытием, нанесённым из расплава

hot weather type pigment paper — пигментная бумага для жаркого климата

hydrophilic paper — гидрофильная бумага

illustrated postcard paper — бумага для художественных открыток

illustration printing paper — иллюстрационная бумага, бумага для печатания иллюстраций

image bearing paper — запечатанная бумага; бумага, несущая изображение

imbibition paper — бумага для гидротипной печати

imitation art paper — имитация бумаги для художественной печати

silver paper — белая папиросная бумага

synthetic paper — синтетическая бумага

tea bag paper — чайная пачечная бумага

paste-board work paper — картонная бумага

probability paper — вертоятностная бумага

42. импрегнированная бумага

autographicprinting paper — автографская печатная бумага

to rule lines on paper, to rule paper — линовать бумагу

throw this paper in the fire — брось эту бумагу в огонь

surface-sized paper — бумага с поверхностной проклейкой

paper height regulator — регулятор высоты стопы бумаги

43. изоляционная пропиточная бумага

impression paper

paper dampening unit — устройство для увлажнения бумаги

one-side art paper — бумага, мелованная с одной стороны

metal base paper — бумага — основа для металлизирования

log-log paper — логарифмическая бумага с двойной сеткой

laminate paper base — слоистый пластик на основе бумаги

44. ротаторная бумага

oiling of paper — промасливание бумаги

ornamental paper — декоративная бумага

paper production — производство бумаги

paper roughness — шероховатость бумаги

photolitho paper — литографская бумага

45. бумага для множительных машин

Indian paper — бумага из волокон бамбука; тонкая печатная бумага

Indian Oxford paper — словарная бумага, библьдрук

Indian-proof paper — тонкая бумага из волокон бамбука для пробных оттисков гравюр

indicator paper — реактивная бумага

insulation paper — изоляционная бумага

intaglio paper — бумага для глубокой печати

interleaving paper — прокладочная бумага

ion-exchange paper — ионообменная бумага

steel-plate paper — сатинированная бумага

title paper — бумага для титульного листа

to oil paper — пропитывать маслом бумагу

translucent paper — полупрозрачная бумага

Van Dyke paper — светокопировальная бумага

46. японская бумага, японский пергамент

bank note paper — ценная бумага банков

buckling of paper — прогибание бумаги

decorative paper — декоративная бумага

fly paper — бумага для уничтожения мух

pure-rag paper — чистотряпичная бумага

47. имитация японской бумаги

Java paper — упаковочная бумага из макулатуры

job paper — контрольный лист ; приправочный лист

job printing paper — бумага для печатания акцидентной продукции

jute paper — джутовая бумага

kraft paper — крафт-бумага

label paper — этикеточная бумага, бумага для печатания этикеток

lace paper — бумага с кружевным узором

lacquer-coated paper — лакированная бумага

laid paper — бумага верже

laminated paper — многослойная бумага; ламинированная бумага

large paper — книга с большими полями

transfer paper — копировальная бумага

transparent paper — прозрачная бумага

waxed paper — вощанка, вощёная бумага

reinforced paper — армированная бумага

antitarnish paper — антикоррозийная бумага

48. форзац

ledger paper — конторская бумага

legal paper — бумага формата 33?40,7 см

letter paper — почтовая бумага формата 25,4?40,7 см

light-weight paper — бумага с малой плотностью; неплотная бумага

linear paper — линованная водяными линиями бумага

49. цветная обложечная бумага

super paper — каландрированная бумага

to goffer paper — гофрировать бумагу

touch paper — медленно горящая бумага

clean sheet of paper — чистый лист бумаги

dull art paper — матовая мелованная бумага

50. форзацная бумага

cigarette pipe paper — сигаретная бумага для мундштуков

box-cover paper — бумага для оклейки коробок или ящиков

baking paper — бумага для выстилания хлебопекарных форм

aluminium-coated paper — бумага с алюминиевым покрытием

accordion folded paper — сфальцованная гармошкой бумага

51. бумага для склеивания корешков

linty paper — бумага, пылящая при печатании

lithographic paper — литографская бумага

litmus paper — лакмусовая бумага

loaded paper — мелованная бумага

paper grippers — захваты для транспортировки бумажных листов

locker paper — пергамент для быстрозамороженных продуктов

paper tearing-off rod — планка для отрыва бумажной ленты

paper roll clamp — зажим для крепления бумажного рулона

woodfree paper — бумага, не содержащая древесной массы

52. неплотная бумага

two-side coated paper — бумага двустороннего мелования

to crumple up a piece of paper — скомкать кусок бумаги

the scratch of pen on the paper — скрип пера по бумаге

tea label paper — бумага для печатания чайных этикеток

silicone-coated paper — бумага с силиконовым покрытием

53. свободная бумага

low-grade paper — бумага низкого качества

luminous paper — люминесцентная бумага

machine-coated paper — бумага машинного мелования

machine-finished paper — бумага машинной гладкости

machine-glazed paper — бумага, глазированная с одной стороны

machine-made paper — бумага машинного отлива

magazine paper — журнальная бумага

manifold paper — бумага для изготовления машинописных копий

manila paper — манильская бумага

map paper — картографическая бумага

marble paper — мраморная бумага

masking paper — бумага для изготовления масок для выкрывания

mat art paper — матовая мелованная бумага

match label paper — бумага для спичечных этикеток

matrix paper — матричный картон

mat surface paper — матовая бумага

mechanical transfer paper — копировальная бумага для механического переноса изображения

mechanical wood-pulp paper — бумага из механической древесной массы

metal paper — металлизированная бумага; фольга; станиоль

skid of paper — стапель бумаги

smooth paper — гладкая бумага

stained paper — цветная бумага

ticket paper — билетная бумага

tinted paper — тоновая бумага

54. металлизированная бумага; фольга; станиоль

foil paper — фольга

tinfoil paper — станиоль

metallized paper — фольга

toned paper — кремовая бумага

wire-laid paper — бумага верже

55. металлописная бумага

metal-mounted paper — оригинал издания на жёсткой металлической основе

mica paper — бумага, покрытая слюдой, слюдяная бумага

mill-conditioned paper — бумага, акклиматизированная на фабрике

mill-finished litho paper — литографская бумага машинной гладкости

mill-tinted paper — бумага фабричной окраски; бумага, окрашенная в массе

mimeograph paper — ротаторная бумага

modified paper — модифицированная бумага

monotype paper — монотипная бумага

mottled paper — разноцветная бумага

multigraph paper — ротаторная бумага

multiply paper — многослойная бумага

music paper — нотная бумага

music printing paper — нотопечатная бумага

napkin paper — салфеточная бумага

natural colored paper — бумага с естественной окраской

NCR paper — бумага с копировальным слоем на оборотной стороне

needle paper — игольная бумага

negative paper — негативная бумага, фотобумага для получения негативов

neutral pH paper — бумага с нейтральной реакцией

rag paper — бумага, содержащая хлопчатобумажное тряпье

paper waste — бумажный брак; макулатура; отходы бумаги

paper surface structure — структура поверхности бумаги

paper height regulator — регулятор высоты стопы бумаги

emery paper strip carrier — держатель наждачной бумаги

English-Russian big polytechnic dictionary > paper
13 Beaute Satin

BEAUTE SATIN
The French term for a backed silk fabric woven with a warp satin face and a plain back (5-shaft weave). Net silk yarns are used. The weft has a crepe twist, picked, two right and two reverse - giving a plain crepe back.

Dictionary of the English textile terms > Beaute Satin
14 Mousselaine A Application

MOUSSELAINE A APPLICATION
A French term for curtains made of cotton muslin with the designs cut out and then backed by tulle.

Dictionary of the English textile terms > Mousselaine A Application
15 Saldanha, Duke of

(1790-1876)

   Born João Carlos de Saldanha Oliveira Daun, and later called duke, marshal, count, and marquis of Saldanha, he pursued a military career and personified military intervention in 19th-century politics. Saldanha fought against the French in the Peninsular War, as well as in conflicts in Uruguay and Brazil, and he backed the constitutional monarchist cause of King Pedro IV. Perhaps the most famous of career officers during the century, in his younger years he was often in exile. Critics quipped that his true name was "Dom João VII" for his imperious manner. As minister and prime minister in various liberal governments after 1851, his name later became used as a generic term for an impetuously planned military coup, a "Saldanhada," meaning a military golpe almost whimsical in spirit, carried out by a wild, headstrong general.

   A soldier from the tender age of 14, Saldanha was a much-discussed figure during various generations of soldiers and politicians. The writer Oliveira Martins later described the man as "a liberal and Portuguese Cid," after El Cid, the Castilian crusading warrior who fought Muslims in medieval Spain. For the constitutional liberal cause of Regent Dom Pedro, Saldanha's personal valor and military prowess were essential in the civil wars, and his prestige in the military was important in the era of the Regeneration of 1851-70; however, this officer lacked political ideas and was out of his element in governance. Queen Maria II, however, in part owed her throne to the force of this military personality who had become a general at age 27. In later life, Saldanha, loaded with honors and freighted with medals, served as Portugal's ambassador in Paris and London, in which city he died at his last post.

    See also Golpismo.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Saldanha, Duke of
16 great

great [greɪt] (compar greater, superl greatest)

1 adjective

(a) (in size, scale) grand;

∎ the great fire of London le grand incendie de Londres (qui, en 1666, détruisit les trois quarts de la ville, et notamment la cathédrale Saint-Paul);

∎ he made a great effort to be nice il a fait un gros effort pour être agréable

(b) (in degree) grand;

∎ a great friend un grand ami;

∎ they're great friends ce sont de grands amis;

∎ great ignorance une grande ignorance, une ignorance complète;

∎ there's great ignorance about the problem les gens ne sont pas conscients du problème;

∎ great willpower une volonté de fer;

∎ she's got great willpower elle est très volontaire;

∎ to my great satisfaction à ma grande satisfaction;

∎ a great surprise une grande surprise;

∎ with great care avec grand soin, avec beaucoup de soin;

∎ with great pleasure avec grand plaisir;

∎ it is no great matter ce n'est pas une grosse affaire;

∎ to be in great pain souffrir (beaucoup);

∎ to reach a great age parvenir à un âge avancé;

∎ to have a great opinion of sb/sth avoir une haute opinion de qn/qch;

∎ I have a great liking for that country j'aime beaucoup ce pays

(c) (in quantity)

∎ a great quantity of une grande quantité de;

∎ a great number of un grand nombre de;

∎ a great crowd une grande ou grosse foule, une foule nombreuse;

∎ to a great extent, in great part en grande partie;

∎ the great majority la grande majorité

(d) (important → person, event) grand;

∎ a great man un grand homme;

∎ Alfred the Great Alfred le Grand;

∎ a great poet un grand poète;

∎ a great lady une grande dame;

∎ a great moment un grand moment;

∎ a great occasion une grande occasion;

∎ a great house une grande demeure

(e) (main)

∎ the great hall la grande salle, la salle principale;

∎ France's greatest footballer le plus grand footballeur français

(f) familiar (term of approval) génial, super;

∎ she has a great voice elle a une voix magnifique^□ ;

∎ he's a great guy c'est un type super ou génial;

∎ she's great! (nice person) elle est super!;

∎ to have a great time bien s'amuser^□ ;

∎ we had a great holiday nous avons passé des vacances merveilleuses^□ ;

∎ what's that film like? - great! comment est ce film? - génial!;

∎ it would be great to have lots of money ce serait super d'avoir beaucoup d'argent;

∎ the great thing is that… le grand avantage ou ce qui est bien, c'est que…^□ ;

∎ I feel great! je me sens super bien!;

∎ you look great tonight! (in appearance) tu es magnifique ce soir!;

∎ ironic he's coming too - oh, great! il vient aussi - oh, génial ou super!

(g) (keen)

∎ she's a great reader elle adore lire, elle lit beaucoup;

∎ she's a great one for television elle adore la télévision;

∎ ironic she's a great one for borrowing things without asking people elle est spécialiste pour emprunter les choses sans demander l'autorisation

(h) familiar (good at or expert on)

∎ he's great at languages il est très doué pour les langues^□ ;

∎ she's great on sculpture elle s'y connaît vraiment en sculpture^□ ;

∎ she's great at making the past come alive elle arrive merveilleusement bien à faire revivre le passé^□

(i) Zoology

∎ the great apes les grands singes mpl

2 noun

∎ (person) he's one of the greats of world cinema c'est l'un des grands noms du cinéma mondial;

∎ it's one of the all-time greats c'est un des plus grands classiques;

∎ she's one of the all-time greats c'est une des plus grandes stars;

∎ the great and the good (people) les gens mpl influents

3 adverb

∎ (as intensifier) a great big fish un énorme poisson;

∎ an enormous great house une maison immense;

∎ familiar you great fat slob! espèce de gros lard!

4 greats plural noun

University = examen final d'un diplôme de langues classiques et de philosophie à l'université d'Oxford

►► Ornithology great auk grand pingouin m;

Great Australian Bight Grande Baie f Australienne;

the Great Barrier Reef la Grande Barrière;

the Great Basin le Grand Bassin;

Astronomy the Great Bear la Grande Ourse;

Great Bear Lake le Grand Lac de l'Ours;

Ornithology great black-backed gull goéland m marin;

Great Britain Grande-Bretagne f;

∎ in Great Britain en Grande-Bretagne;

Ornithology great bustard outarde f barbue;

great circle grand cercle m;

Ornithology great cormorant grand cormoran m;

Ornithology great crested glebe grèbe m huppé;

Great Dane danois m;

the Great Depression la grande dépression des années 30;

the Great Divide = chaîne de montagnes dans le nord des États-Unis marquant la ligne de partage des eaux entre l'Atlantique et le Pacifique;

the Great Exhibition = grande exposition sur les progrès de la technique et de l'industrie pour laquelle fut construit, en 1851, le Crystal Palace de Hyde Park;

History the Great Famine la Grande Famine (en Irlande, de 1845 à 1849);

Great Glen Great Glen m, Glen m More (grande ligne de faille parcourant l'Écosse du nord-est au sud-ouest);

Ornithology great grey shrike pie-grièche f grise;

History the Great Hunger la Grande Famine (en Irlande, de 1845 à 1849);

the Great Lakes les Grands Lacs mpl;

the Great Lake State = surnom donné au Michigan;

History the Great Leap Forward le Grand Bond en avant;

Ornithology great northern diver plongeon m imbrin;

great organ grand orgue m; (in church) grandes orgues fpl;

the Great Plains les Grandes Plaines fpl;

Great Power grande puissance f;

the Great Powers les grandes puissances fpl;

Ornithology great reed warbler rousserolle f turdoïde;

Geography the Great Rift Valley la Rift Valley, la Great Rift Valley;

American great room séjour m cathédrale, French Canadian salle f de séjour à toit cathédral;

the Great Salt Lake le Grand Lac Salé;

great seal Grand Sceau m;

Ornithology great skua labbe m cataracte, grand labbe m;

the Great Slave Lake le Grand Lac des Esclaves;

the Great Smoky Mountains les Smoky Mountains fpl;

Ornithology great snipe bécassine f double;

Ornithology great spotted cuckoo coucou-geai m;

Ornithology great spotted woodpecker (pic m) épeiche f;

Ornithology great tit mésange f charbonnière, charbonnier m;

the Great Wall of China la Grande Muraille (de Chine);

the Great War la Grande Guerre, la guerre de 14 ou de 14-18;

American familiar the Great White Way Broadway^□ ;

Zoology great white shark grand requin m blanc

✾ Book 'Great Expectations' Dickens 'Les Grandes Espérances'

✾ Book ✾ Film 'The Great Gatsby' Fitzgerald, Clayton 'Gatsby le Magnifique'

✾ Film 'The Great Escape' Sturges 'La Grande Évasion'

ⓘ THE GREAT FAMINE La famine qui sévit en Irlande en 1845 (époque à laquelle ce pays faisait encore partie de l'Empire britannique), fut provoquée par la maladie de la pomme de terre, aliment de base de la population paysanne. Appelée également "the Great Hunger", cette catastrophe plongea le pays dans la misère: elle fit un million de morts et contraignit plus d'un million de personnes à émigrer aux États-Unis et au Canada.

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > great
17 hard

hard [hɑ:d]

dur ⇒ 1 (a)-(c), 2 (a) difficile ⇒ 1 (b) froid ⇒ 1 (c) rude ⇒ 1 (c) concret ⇒ 1 (d) fort ⇒ 2 (a) difficilement ⇒ 2 (b) durement ⇒ 2 (c)

1 adjective

(a) (not soft → substance, light, colour) dur;

∎ to get or to become hard durcir;

∎ rock hard, (as) hard as rock dur comme la pierre;

∎ his muscles are rock hard or (as) hard as rock ses muscles sont durs comme le fer, il a des muscles d'acier;

∎ she is (as) hard as nails (emotionally) elle est dure, elle n'a pas de cœur; (physically) c'est une dure à cuire

(b) (difficult → question, problem etc) difficile, dur;

∎ the laws make it hard to leave the country à cause des lois, il est difficile de quitter le pays;

∎ to have a hard fight or struggle on one's hands avoir une lourde tâche devant soi;

∎ it's hard to explain c'est difficile ou dur à expliquer;

∎ I find it hard to understand/believe that... je n'arrive pas à comprendre pourquoi/croire que...;

∎ it's hard to say c'est difficile à dire;

∎ he's hard to get on with il n'est pas facile à vivre;

∎ she is hard to please (never satisfied) elle est difficile; (difficult to buy gifts for etc) c'est difficile de lui faire plaisir;

∎ it's hard to beat on trouve difficilement mieux;

∎ it's hard to beat a good Bordeaux il n'y a rien de meilleur qu'un bon bordeaux;

∎ the hardest part of the job is done le plus dur est fait;

∎ life is hard c'est dur, la vie;

∎ times are hard les temps sont durs ou difficiles;

∎ these are hard times for all of us c'est une période difficile pour tout le monde;

∎ to fall on hard times (financially) connaître des temps difficiles ou une période de vaches maigres; (have difficult times) connaître des temps difficiles, en voir de dures;

∎ to give sb a hard time en faire voir de dures à qn;

∎ the boss has just been giving me a hard time le patron vient de me faire passer un mauvais quart d'heure;

∎ come on, don't give me a hard time! allez, laisse-moi tranquille!;

∎ you'll have a hard time (of it) persuading him to do that tu vas avoir du mal à le convaincre de faire cela;

∎ she had a hard time of it after her mother's death elle a traversé une période difficile après la mort de sa mère;

∎ she had a hard time of it when she was a child la vie n'était pas drôle pour elle quand elle était enfant;

∎ she had a hard time of it (in childbirth, operation) elle a souffert;

∎ to learn sth the hard way (involving personal loss, suffering etc) apprendre qch à ses dépens; (in a difficult way) faire le rude apprentissage de qch;

∎ I learnt the hard way not to be underinsured j'ai appris à mes dépens qu'il ne faut pas être sous-assuré;

∎ I learnt skiing the hard way j'ai appris à skier à la dure;

∎ I learnt my seamanship the hard way j'ai fait le rude apprentissage du métier de marin;

∎ to do things the hard way (through choice) se compliquer la vie; (due to circumstances) en baver;

∎ some people always have to do things the hard way il y a des gens qui choisissent toujours la difficulté;

∎ to play hard to get (flirt) jouer les insaisissables;

∎ humorous their financial expert is playing hard to get leur expert financier semble jouer à cache-cache;

∎ the hard of hearing les malentendants mpl;

∎ to be hard of hearing être dur d'oreille;

∎ a glass of wine, or would you prefer a drop of the hard stuff? un verre de vin, ou bien préféreriez-vous une goutte de quelque chose de plus fort?;

∎ keep off the hard stuff évitez les boissons fortes

(c) (severe → voice, face, eyes) dur, froid; (→ climate, winter) rigoureux, rude; (→ frost) fort, rude;

∎ he's hard (tough) c'est un dur;

∎ to be hard on sb être dur avec qn;

∎ children are hard on their shoes les enfants font subir de mauvais traitements à leurs chaussures;

∎ it's hard on the nerves c'est dur pour les nerfs;

∎ it was hard on the others ça a été dur pour les autres;

∎ it's hardest on the children le plus dur, c'est pour les enfants;

∎ to be a hard taskmaster être dur à la tâche;

∎ to take a long hard look at sth examiner qch de près;

∎ you should take a long hard look at yourself tu devrais bien te regarder;

∎ it's a hard blow for him c'est un coup terrible pour lui;

∎ no hard feelings? tu ne m'en veux pas?;

∎ familiar hard luck!, British hard cheese!, hard lines! pas de chance!^□, pas de veine!, pas de bol!;

∎ it will be hard luck if he doesn't get the job ça ne sera pas de veine ou de bol s'il n'obtient pas le travail;

∎ don't give me any of your hard luck stories ne me raconte pas tes malheurs;

∎ he gave me some hard luck story about having lost his investments il a essayé de m'apitoyer en me racontant qu'il avait perdu l'argent qu'il avait investi;

∎ familiar a hard nut or man un dur

(d) (concrete → facts) concret(ète), tangible; (→ evidence) tangible;

∎ the hard fact is that there isn't enough money la vérité, c'est qu'il n'y a pas assez d'argent;

∎ the argument was not backed up by any hard fact l'argument ne s'appuyait sur rien de concret

(e) (strenuous)

∎ it's been a long hard day la journée a été longue;

∎ it's hard work c'est dur;

∎ it was hard work to convince him j'ai eu fort à faire pour le convaincre;

∎ she's hard work (difficult to get on with) elle n'est pas facile à vivre; (difficult to make conversation with) elle n'est pas causante;

∎ she's not afraid of hard work le travail ne lui fait pas peur;

∎ the climb was hard going la montée était rude;

∎ it's hard going making conversation with him c'est difficile de discuter avec lui

(f) (intense)

∎ she's a hard worker c'est un bourreau de travail;

∎ he's a hard drinker c'est un gros buveur, il boit beaucoup;

∎ he's a hard charger c'est un fonceur;

∎ give it a good hard shove pousse-le un bon coup, pousse-le fort

(g) Finance (stock, rates) soutenu, ferme

(h) Linguistics (consonant) dur

2 adverb

(a) (strenuously → pull, push, hit, breathe) fort; (→ work) dur; (→ run) à toutes jambes; (→ listen) attentivement;

∎ to work hard at sth beaucoup travailler qch;

∎ to work hard at improving one's service/French beaucoup travailler pour améliorer son service/français;

∎ to work sb hard faire travailler qn dur;

∎ he works hard and plays hard il se dépense beaucoup dans son travail et dans ses loisirs;

∎ you'll have to try harder il faudra que tu fasses plus d'efforts;

∎ to try hard to do sth essayer de son mieux de faire qch;

∎ try hard! fais de ton mieux!;

∎ to think hard beaucoup réfléchir;

∎ think hard! réfléchis bien!;

∎ think harder! réfléchis un peu plus!;

∎ we can't find it - well, look harder! nous ne le trouvons pas - et bien cherchez mieux!;

∎ you didn't look very hard! tu n'as pas bien cherché;

∎ to look hard at sb regarder qn bien en face;

∎ to look hard at sth examiner qch;

∎ as hard as possible, as hard as one can (work, try) le plus qu'on peut; (push, hit, squeeze) de toutes ses forces;

∎ Nautical hard astern! arrière, toute!;

∎ Cars she hauled the wheel hard over elle a braqué à fond;

∎ Cars to turn hard to the left braquer à gauche, faire un virage très sec vers la gauche;

∎ to swim hard for the shore nager de toutes ses forces vers le rivage;

∎ British they're hard at it (working) ils sont plongés dans leur travail

(b) (with difficulty) difficilement;

∎ to be hard put or pushed or pressed to do sth avoir du mal à faire qch;

∎ you'll be hard put to find a shop open at this time tu vas avoir du mal à trouver une boutique ouverte à cette heure-ci;

∎ old habits die hard les vieilles habitudes ont la vie dure

(c) (harshly, severely → treat someone) durement, sévèrement; (→ rain) à verse; (→ freeze, snow) fort;

∎ he's feeling hard done by il a l'impression d'avoir été injustement traité;

∎ to be hard hit by sth être durement touché par qch;

∎ she took the news/his death pretty hard la nouvelle/sa mort l'a beaucoup éprouvée;

∎ old-fashioned it'll go hard with him if he keeps telling lies ça va aller mal pour lui s'il continue à raconter des mensonges

(d) (solid)

∎ the ground was frozen hard le gel avait complètement durci la terre;

∎ to set hard (concrete, mortar) prendre

(e) (close)

∎ to follow hard on the heels of sb être sur les talons de qn;

∎ to follow or to come hard on the heels of sth suivre qch de très près

(f) familiar (idiom)

∎ hard up (short of money) fauché, à sec;

∎ to be hard up for ideas manquer d'idées^□, être à court d'idées^□ ;

∎ to be hard up for volunteers manquer de volontaires^□ ;

∎ figurative you must be hard up if you're going out with him! il faut vraiment que tu n'aies rien à te mettre sous la dent pour sortir avec lui!

3 noun

∎ to try one's hardest faire de son mieux

4 hard by preposition

old-fashioned tout près de

►► Typography & Computing hard carriage return retour m chariot obligatoire;

familiar hard case (person) dur(e) m,f à cuire;

hard cash (argent m) liquide m;

American hard cider cidre m;

hard coal anthracite m;

Finance hard commodities minerais mpl;

Linguistics hard consonant consonne f dure;

Computing hard copy copie f sur papier, sortie f papier;

hard core (nucleus) noyau m dur; Building industry empierrement m; Music hard rock m inv, hard m inv; (pornography) porno m hard;

British Sport hard court (for tennis) court m en ciment;

hard currency monnaie f ou devise f forte;

∎ a hard currency shop un magasin où on paye en devises;

Computing hard disk disque m dur;

Computing hard disk drive, hard drive unité f de disque dur;

hard drug drogue f dure;

Horseriding hard gallop galop m soutenu;

hard hat (of construction worker) casque m; American familiar (construction worker) ouvrier(ère) m,f du bâtiment;

hard hat area = zone où le port du casque est obligatoire;

∎ hard hat area (sign) port du casque obligatoire;

Typography & Computing hard hyphen césure f imposée, trait m d'union imposé;

hard labour (UNCOUNT) travaux mpl forcés;

hard landing (by spacecraft) atterrissage m avec impact; figurative (during economic crisis) atterrissage m brutal;

Metallurgy hard lead plomb m aigre;

Politics the hard left l'extrême gauche;

hard line ligne f de conduite dure;

∎ to take a hard line on sb/sth adopter une ligne de conduite dure avec qn/sur qch;

hard liquor spiritueux mpl;

Finance hard loan prêt m aux conditions du marché;

Press hard news nouvelles fpl sûres ou vérifiées;

Veterinary medicine hard pad coussinet m dur;

Typography & Computing hard page break fin f de page obligatoire;

Anatomy hard palate voûte f du palais, palais m dur;

hard porn porno m hard, hard m inv;

Computing hard reset réinitialisation f totale de la machine;

Typography & Computing hard return saut m de ligne manuel;

Politics the hard right l'extrême droit;

Music hard rock hard rock m inv, hard m inv; esp American Cookery hard sauce = sauce au beurre, au sucre et au brandy ou au rhum servie avec le pudding;

hard science science f dure;

hard sell vente f agressive;

∎ to give sth the hard sell promouvoir qch de façon agressive;

∎ the salesman gave us the hard sell le vendeur a essayé de nous forcer la main;

hard sell approach, hard sell tactics méthode f de vente agressive;

Cars hard shoulder bande f d'arrêt d'urgence;

hard space espace m insécable;

hard water eau f calcaire ou dure

✾ Book 'Hard Times' Dickens 'Les Temps difficiles'

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > hard

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